Cognitive
aspects of visualization tool use
The
promise of visualization is based on an assumption that human vision
and cognition has powerful information synthesis and pattern seeking
capabilities that can effectively complement the raw information processing
power of digital computers. Harnessing this power of vision, however,
requires developing a more complete understanding of spatial cognition
and perception of visual displays. While we have a solid base of knowledge
about perception and cognition as it relates to static paper maps,
we know much less about the cognitive and perceptual issues associated
with 3D and dynamic displays. Seven priority topics are identified
here.
Background/General
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4.3
Schemata, metaphors, and human-computer interaction
Facilitating
human-computer interaction requires development of logical approaches
to interface design and the creation of appropriate interface controls
that allow users to manipulate parameters of the display. Also required,
however, is a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive aspects
of interaction with the display. Do, for example, different control
forms (e.g., a time wheel versus a time line) prompt different knowledge
schemata that result in different interpretations of what is seen?
A similar question involves the implications of possible interface
metaphors for the strategies that a user takes to data exploration
and the interpretation of results from that exploration.
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B. P. and C. R. Weber (1994). AProative graphics for exploratory visualization
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Perspectives 19: 8-18.
Carroll,
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with description.
Cartwright,
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Cartwright,
W. (in press). ACan the map metaphor be extended using web delivered
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Freundschuh,
S. M. and D. J. Mercer (1995). ASpatial cognitive representations
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cartography.@ Cartographic
Perspectives(5): 3-17.
Grinstein,
G. and S. Smith (1990). The perceptualization of scientific data.
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M. and A. M. MacEachren (1999). Exploratory data analysis and map
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H. (1994). Psychology and displays in GIS. Visualization in Geographical
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Howard,
D. and A. M. MacEachren (1995). Constructing and evaluating an
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D. and A. M. MacEachren (1996). AInterface design for geographic visualization:
Tools for representing reliability.@ Cartography
and Geographic Information Systems 23(2): 59-77.
Johnson,
P. (1992). Human-Computer Interaction B Psychology, Task Analysis
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Kitchin,
R. M. (1996). AIncreasing the integrity of cognition mapping research:
Appraising conceptual schemata of environment-behaviour interaction.@
Progress
in Human Geography 20(1): 56-84. Title only.
Kraak,
M.-J. (1994). Interactive modelling environment for three-dimensional
maps: Functionality and interface issues. Visualization in Modern
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269-285.
Kraak,
M.-J., R. Edsall, et al. (1997). Cartographic animation and legends
for temporal maps: Exploration and or interaction. Proceedings
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Kuhn,
W. (1993). Metaphors create theories for users. Spatial Information
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366-376.
Kuhn,
W. (1995). 7+-2 questions and answers about metaphors for GIS user
interfaces. Cognitive Aspects of Human-Cumputer Interaction for
Geographic Information Systems. T. L. Nyerges, D. M. Mark, R.
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Kuhn,
W. (1997). Handling data spatially: Spatializing user interfaces.
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Kuhn,
W. and B. Blumenthal (1996). Spatialization: Spatial metaphors for
user interfaces. GeoInfo-Series 8, Department of Geoinformation,
Technical University of Vienna.
Kulhavy,
R. W., D. R. Pridemore, et al. (1992). ACartographic experience and
thinking aloud about thematic maps.@ Cartographica
29(1): 1-9.
Lee,
J. P. and G. G. Grinstein (1996). Describing visual interactions
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M. and T. Sarjakoski (1994). Designing a visualization user interface.
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R. (1997). Spatial Cognition, Geographic Environments. Dordrecht:
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A. M. (1995). How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and
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D. M. (1989). Cognitive image-schemata for geographic information:
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D. M. and A. U. Frank (1989). Concepts of space and spatial language.
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D. M. and S. M. Freundschuh (1995). Spatial concepts and cognitive
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McGuinness,
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D. (1994). Visualization and human-computer interaction in GIS. Visualization
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Medyckyj-Scott,
D. and H. M. Hearnshaw, Eds. (1993). Human Factors in Geographical
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description.
Montalvo,
F. S. (1992). AKnowledge visualization: A new framework for interactive
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Neves,
N., J. P. Silva, et al. (1997). ACognitive spaces and metaphors: A
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T., T. J. Moore, et al. (1998). ADeveloping and using interaction
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T. L. (1991). Representing geographical meaning. Map Generalization:
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A. and B. P. Buttenfield (1996). Spatial metaphors for visualizing
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Skupin,
A. and B. P. Buttenfield (1997). Spatial metaphors for visualizing
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P. W. and C. Stasz (1980). AIndividual differences in procedures for
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S. and A. U. Frank (1997). Using hierarchical spatial data structures
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D. S. (1990). AApplying visual psychophysics to user interface design.@
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4.4
Hypermedia navigation
The
web is a complex maze of information in which users frequently are
frustrated in their efforts to locate the information they require.
Attention to cognitive aspects of wayfinding in this information environment
is needed as a complement to research (discussed above) directed to
design of interface tools that facilitate information browsing. One
potentially fruitful avenue of research is to explore the transferability
of conceptual models of wayfinding in real spaces to wayfinding in
information spaces. An additional topic to investigate involves strategies
used to maintain orientation and context in multidimensional information
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D. V. and J. Q. Walker (1990). ANavigational techniques to improve
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4.5
Expert-novice distinctions
At issue
here is the impact of expertise on use of GVis and differences in
design strategies that should be developed for GVis users with differing
kinds or levels of expertise. At least two forms of expertise must
be considered, that in the technology being used and that in the domain
of knowledge to which the technology is applied. A better understanding
of expert strategies for the application of GVis tools to data exploration
or problem solving could be used to design knowledge-based GVis tools
that prompt novices to use expert strategies.
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M. E. (1998). The effects of prior knowledge on children's abilities
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K. J., M. Wood, et al. (1988). ASkill in map reading and memory for
maps.@ Quarterly
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T. L. C. (1983). AProblem solving on maps - the importance of user
strategies.@ The
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S. (1989). AImagery experts: How do expert abacus operators process
imagery?@ Applied
Cognitive Psychology 3: 33-46.
Kulhavy,
R. W., D. R. Pridemore, et al. (1992). ACartographic experience and
thinking aloud about thematic maps.@ Cartographica
29(1): 1-9.
Larkin,
J., J. McDermott, et al. (1980). AExpert and novice performance in
solving physics problems.@ Science
208: 1335-1342.
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A. M., F. Boscoe, et al. (1999). Interactive Visualization of space-time
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Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics, Office
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McGuinness,
C. (1994). Expert/novice use of visualization tools. Visualization
in Modern Cartography. A. M. MacEachren and D. R. F. Taylor. Oxford:
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Montello,
D. R., C. N. Sullivan, et al. (1994). ARecall memory for topographic
maps and natural terrain: Effects of experience and task performance.@
Cartographica
31(3): 18-36.
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M. J. and H. E. Egeth (1982). ACognitive correlates of mapreading
ability.@ Intelligence
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Shurtleff,
M. and R. E. Geiselman (1986). AA human-performance based evaluation
of topographic maps and map symbols with novice map users.@
The
Cartographic Journal 23: 52-55.
Thorndyke,
P. W. and C. Stasz (1980). AIndividual differences in procedures for
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Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics, Office
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4.6
Influence of GVis methods on the scientific process / scientific understanding
There
is an implicit assumption behind ViSC that visualization will facilitate
science. While anecdotal evidence may seem to support this contention,
anecdotal evidence by its nature is generally positive. There is little
systematically collected empirical evidence to either support or refute
the claim and we know relatively little about how scientists actually
use sophisticated visualization tools and methods. Research is required
to test the underlying assumption that GVis facilitates science and
to develop an understanding of the implications for science of visual
geographic representation methods.
Antonietti,
A. (1991). Why does mental visualization facilitate problem-solving?
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Bishop,
I. (1994). The role of visual realism in communicating and understanding
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H. (1988). AThe effect of real-time laboratory graphing on learning
graphic representations of distance and velocity.@ Journal
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Brown,
R. A. (1977). ACreativity, discovery, and science.@ Journal
of Chemical Education 54(12): 720-724.
Bryson,
S. (1996). AVirtual reality in scientific visualization.@ Communications
of the ACM 39(5): 62-71.
Carpenter,
E. H. (1992). AAutomating analysis, visualization, and other social
science research tasks.@ Social
Science Computer Review 10(4): 544-569.
Carter,
C. S., M. A. LaRussa, et al. (1987). AA study of two measures of spatial
ability as predictors of success in different levels of general chemistry.@
Journal
of Research in Science Teaching 24(7): 645-657.
Couclelis,
H. and J. Gottsegen (1997). What maps mean to people: Denotation,
connotation, and geographic visualization. Spatial Information
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J. (1990). Scientific images: Perception and deception. Images
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C. e. a. (1997). Multisensory immersion as a modeling environment
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Hunter. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Dorling,
D. (1992). AStretching space and splicing time: From cartographic
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and Geographic Information Systems 19(4): 215-227, 267-270.
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D. (1995). A cartographic video of British society? Proceedings
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F. J. Ormeling, B. Köbben and R. Perez Gomez. Madrid, Spain:
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Dykes,
J. (1994). Area-value data: New visual emphasis and representation.
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Dykes,
J. A. (1997). AExploring spatial data representation with dynamic
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Earnshaw,
R. A. and N. Wiseman (1992). An Introductory Guide to Scientific
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Fauerbach,
E. D., R. M. Edsall, et al. (1997). Visualization of uncertainty in
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465-476.
Fernandes,
J. P., A. Fonseca, et al. (1997). AVisualization and interaction tools
for aerial photograph mosaics.@ Computers
& Geosciences 23(4): 465-474.
Fisher,
P. F. (1996). AAnimation of reliability in computer-generated dots
maps and elevation models.@ Cartography
and Geographic Information Systems 23(4): 196-205.
Ganter,
J. H. (1988). Interactive graphics: Linking the human to the model.
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Hodler,
T. W. (1995). Use of animated mapping for displaying temporal data.
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Hofmeister,
A. M. (1989). ADeveloping and validating science education videodiscs.@
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of Research in Science Teaching 26(8): 665-677.
Judson,
H. F. (1987). Evidence: The state of the art. The Search for Solutions.
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Krygier,
J. B. (1994). Sound and geographic visualization. Visualization
in Modern Cartography. A. M. MacEachren and D. R. F. Taylor. Oxford:
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Kulkarni,
D. and H. A. Simon (1988). AThe processes of scientific discovery:
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Science 12: 139-175.
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J. and M. Lynch (1988). Lists, field guides, and the descriptive organization
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S. (1996). The effects of computer animation and cognitive style on
the understanding and retention of scientific explanation. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Title only.
Lord,
T. R. (1987). AA look at spatial abilities in undergraduate women
science majors.@ Journal
of Research in Science Teaching 24(8): 757-767.
MacEachren,
A. M. (1995). Approaches to truth in geographic visualization.
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A. M. (1995). How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and
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A. M., F. P. Boscoe, et al. (1998). Geographic visualization: Designing
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Proceedings of the IEEE Information Visualization Symposium.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: IEEE Computer Society. Available
at http://www.geog.psu.edu/MacEachren/hvisbcd.pdf. Abstract
only.
MacEachren,
A. M., C. A. Brewer, et al. (1998). AVisualizing georeferenced data:
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A. M. and J. H. Ganter (1990). AA pattern identification approach
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A. M., M. Wachowicz, et al. (1999). AConstructing knowledge from multivariate
spatiotemporal data: Integrating Geographic Visualization with Knowledge
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D. F., Z. Gou, et al. (1997). Recent advances in the exploratory analysis
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Mitas,
L., W. M. Brown, et al. (1997). ARole of dynamic cartography in simulations
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I. (1986). ATeaching environmental systems modelling using computer
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M. (1992). AAuthoring graphic scripts: Experiences and principles.@
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Geomorphology
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4.7
Role of visualization in decision-making
The
primary question here is whether GVis tools change how decisions are
arrived at and/or the outcome of decisions. Assuming that some changes
are produced, it is important to explore the nature of those changes
and whether decisions are more consistent or otherwise "better." Additional
questions to address include the implications of various components
of a GVis environment on decision making (e.g., the kinds of information
displays provided, the kinds of interaction allowed, etc.) and the
role of data reliability visualization on strategies taken to decision
making.
Arentze,
T. A., A. W. J. Borgers, et al. (1996). ADesign of a view-based DSS
for location planning.@ International
Journal of Geographical Information Systems 10(2): 219-236.
Title only.
Armstrong,
M. P., P. J. Densham, et al. (1992). ACartographic displays to support
locational decision making.@ Cartography
and Geographic Information Systems 19(3): 154-164.
Benbasat,
I., A. S. Dexter, et al. (1986). AAn experimental program investigating
color-enhanced and graphical information presentation: An integration
of the findings.@ Communications
of the ACM 29: 1094-1105.
Benbasat,
I., A. S. Dexter, et al. (1986). AThe influence of color and graphical
information presentation in a managerial decision simulation.@
Human-Computer
Interaction 2: 65-92.
Cats-Beril,
W. L. and G. P. Huber (1987). ADecision Support Systems for ill-structured
problems: An empirical study.@ Decision
Sciences 18: 350-372.
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K. C. (1998). Visualizing different geofutures. Geocomputation:
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H. (1985). ACellular worlds: A framework for modeling micro-macro
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M. D. (1992). Individual decision-maker performance with and without
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Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.
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T. C. (1992). AData visualization for decision support in environmental
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G. (1984). AComputer graphics as decision aids: Directions for research.@
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S. L. (1989). AThe effect of task demands and graphical format on
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S. L. and G. W. Dickson (1988). AGraphics and managerial decision-making:
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W. R. and J. I. Rodriguez (1978). AEvaluating management information
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M. J., J. C. Müller, et al. (1995). AGIS-Cartography: Visual
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J. B. (1998). The praxis of public participation GIS and visualization
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M. J., G. J. Titus, et al. (1988). AThe effects of display formats
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D. (1997). Auswirkungen der Bildschirm-Visualisierung auf die kartographische
Darstellung der raumbezorgenen Planung. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Schriftenreihe des Instituts fuer Kartographie und Topographie der
Universitaet. Title only.
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D. Die Bildschirmkarte in der raumbezorgenen Planung. Die Bedeutung
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D. (1998). AAuswirkungen moderner Visualisierungstechnieken auf die
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